{"id":12677,"date":"2021-03-26T11:10:49","date_gmt":"2021-03-26T16:10:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/jazairhope.org\/?p=12677"},"modified":"2021-03-26T11:10:49","modified_gmt":"2021-03-26T16:10:49","slug":"how-jean-paul-sartre-and-les-temps-modernes-supported-algerias-struggle-for-freedom","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/jazairhope.org\/en\/how-jean-paul-sartre-and-les-temps-modernes-supported-algerias-struggle-for-freedom\/","title":{"rendered":"How Jean-Paul Sartre and Les Temps Modernes Supported Algeria\u2019s Struggle for Freedom"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><strong>Source:<\/strong> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jacobinmag.com\/2021\/03\/jean-paul-sartre-algerian-war-les-temps-modernes-journal\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">jacobinmag.com<\/a> <strong>Published:<\/strong> March 25,2021 <strong>Author:<\/strong> IAN BIRCHALL<\/p>\n<p><strong>France waged a brutal colonial war in Algeria during the 1950s. But a group of writers clustered around Jean-Paul Sartre\u2019s journal\u00a0<cite>Les Temps modernes<\/cite>\u00a0played a courageous role, exposing French war crimes and supporting the right of the Algerian people to self-determination.<\/strong><\/p>\n<section id=\"ch-0\" class=\"po-cn__intro po-wp__intro\">President Emmanuel Macron of France has now <a href=\"https:\/\/www.usnews.com\/news\/world\/articles\/2021-03-03\/macron-reveals-more-torture-by-french-army-in-algeria-war\">admitted<\/a>\u00a0that the French state committed terrible crimes in the long war (1954\u20131962) to prevent Algerian independence: \u201cNo crime, no atrocity committed by anyone during the War of Algeria can be excused or left hidden.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Macron can hardly deny the war crimes, which are now a matter of public record: torture, executions on dubious grounds, the unlawful killing of prisoners. Up to half a million people \u2014 mostly Algerian Muslims but also including thousands of reluctant French conscripts \u2014 died in the course of the war.<\/p>\n<p>However, what Macron cannot explain is why France persisted for so long in a war that was both deeply immoral and plainly futile. The mainstream political parties \u2014 those of the Left at least as much as those of the Right \u2014 insisted that Algeria was an integral part of French territory and that its independence was not a matter for discussion.<\/p>\n<p>One essential element in the support of the mainstream left for colonialism was their belief in the idea of the \u201ccivilizing mission.\u201d According to this line of thought, France, as the homeland of the 1789 Revolution, had a duty to take the values of liberty, equality, and fraternity to other, more benighted territories. The idea survives today in Macron\u2019s France under the name of \u201crepublican values.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>In practice it was nonsense. When France colonized Algeria in the 1830s, there were schools in every village. A century later, only a quarter of the Muslim population could read Arabic, and less than one in ten could read French.<\/p>\n<p>To really understand what was happening in Algeria, we have to look to the small but courageous minority of the French population who opposed the war and supported the struggle of the National Liberation Front (FLN) for independence. They came from a variety of political standpoints \u2014 Communists, Christians, anarchists, Trotskyists, existentialists. Many suffered police repression for their activities, although it was the Algerians who received the harshest treatment by far.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"ch-1\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\">\n<h1 class=\"po-cn__subhead po-wp__subhead\">Modern Times, Modern struggles<\/h1>\n<section id=\"ch-1\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\">There was consistent support for Algerian independence from the figures grouped around the journal <em>Les Temps modernes\u00a0<\/em>(\u201cModern Times\u201d). The novelist and playwright\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/jacobinmag.com\/2020\/04\/jean-paul-sartre-communism-algeria-oppression\">Jean-Paul Sartre<\/a>\u00a0had founded the publication in 1945 with his friend, the philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Sartre had been involved with the Resistance to the Nazi occupation of France, and he wanted to see radical social change in the postwar world. In particular, he was strongly opposed to racism and colonialism.<\/p>\n<p>He and Merleau-Ponty had little enthusiasm for the existing parties of the French left. Immediately after the war, both the Socialist Party (SFIO) and the French Communists (PCF) had joined a coalition government under the right-wing leader General Charles de Gaulle. De Gaulle\u2019s administration was determined to hold on to France\u2019s colonial empire \u2014 the second-largest in the world, covering nearly one-tenth of the world\u2019s land area and five percent of its population.<\/p>\n<aside class=\"sr-at__slot sr-at__slot--left prt-x\"><\/aside>\n<p>Sartre and Merleau-Ponty wanted to do more than speak with their individual voices: they considered a collective response to be necessary, so they launched a journal and built up a team of writers.\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>\u00a0appeared every two months. The initial circulation was only a few thousand copies, but by the 1960s it had reached more than twenty thousand subscribers. As a result of Sartre\u2019s fame, it became a well-known publication, and more mainstream media outlets often republished its articles.<\/p>\n<p>While\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes\u00a0<\/em>was a journal of the radical left, it was not an explicitly Marxist one, although some of its contributors were Marxists. It soon earned the bitter hostility of the Communist Party, which resented any criticism from its left flank, and saw the publication as a rival for influence among students and intellectuals. PCF ideologue Jean Kanapa accused\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>\u00a0of being run by \u201clittle fanatics sympathetic to Trotskyism.\u201d The Soviet official Andrei Zhdanov, who directed cultural policy under Stalin, also denounced it.<\/p>\n<p>After Merleau-Ponty withdrew in 1953, Sartre continued to have a dominant influence at the journal, and many of his major articles first appeared there. But it still maintained a certain independence. In the 1952\u201356 period, when Sartre himself moved very close to the PCF,\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes\u00a0<\/em>did not always reflect his priorities. It carried material that was highly critical of the systems in the USSR and Eastern Europe \u2014 notably a savage account by Marcel P\u00e9ju of the rigged show trial of the Communist leader Rudolf Sl\u00e1nsk\u00fd in Czechoslovakia.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"ch-2\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\">\n<h1 class=\"po-cn__subhead po-wp__subhead\">Pity for the Maghreb<\/h1>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"ch-2\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\"><em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>\u00a0had opposed the French war in Indochina, though without explicitly calling for the independence of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. It took up the question of Algeria even before the war began. In 1953 the journal carried a long article on Algerian society by Daniel Gu\u00e9rin titled \u201cPiti\u00e9 pour le Maghreb\u201d (\u201cPity for the Maghreb\u201d).<\/p>\n<p>Gu\u00e9rin was a regular contributor to\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>; as a journalist, he believed in seeing for himself. In the 1930s he had toured Nazi Germany, trying to understand the thinking of German working people. In the late 1940s he spent two years in the United States, studying the labor movement and the way racism was deeply rooted in American society.<\/p>\n<p><em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>\u00a0published some of Gu\u00e9rin\u2019s writings from his time in the United States. It was one of the few journals that would have done so, since he was too critical of the United States for the pro-American Cold Warriors, but not anti-American enough for the Communist Party\u2019s liking.<\/p>\n<p>Now he turned his attention to Algeria and spent three months in the autumn of 1952 traveling around the territory. Gu\u00e9rin made a point of encountering and listening to people from all parts of society. His article was a stark indictment of French rule. It examined the economic aspects of French rule \u2014 poverty and unemployment, poor standards of health and education \u2014 but also its cultural impact, which had repressed the Arabic language and the Muslim religion. As Gu\u00e9rin put it, France had \u201ctried to kill the soul of this country.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>He concluded that the French left parties \u2014 the Communists in particular \u2014 were unprepared to deal with the situation. The Algerian crisis would, he predicted, be the \u201cdrama of the French left.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>It is unlikely that any of the politicians who would be running France in the years that followed took the trouble to read Gu\u00e9rin\u2019s work at the time. They were too busy with electoral alliances and parliamentary maneuvers. If they had done so, they would have received a clear warning of an impending disaster that would cost hundreds of thousands of lives.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"ch-3\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\">\n<h1 class=\"po-cn__subhead po-wp__subhead\">\u201cTo This War, We Say No\u201d<\/h1>\n<section id=\"ch-3\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\">When the war broke out, <em>Les Temps modernes\u00a0<\/em>responded clearly. In October 1955, it published an editorial statement under the title \u201cRefusal to Obey,\u201d demanding independence for Algeria. The editorial described Algeria as a \u201ccolony,\u201d rejecting the official fiction that it was an integral part of France, and stated that \u201ca war is starting in North Africa .\u2009.\u2009. to this war, we say no.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>The next issue went further, recognizing that constitutional channels of action would not suffice. The front cover bore the slogan \u201cAlgeria is not France.\u201d The French authorities had prosecuted a journalist for interviewing members of the FLN. The editorial effectively encouraged French troops to refuse orders and to fraternize with Algerian freedom fighters:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Yesterday, Robert Barrat was arrested for having held a meeting with the \u201crebels.\u201d Tomorrow, on the trails of the Aur\u00e8s mountains, perhaps the conscript soldiers will come to recognize them as brothers.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>In 1956, the French government brought in a set of \u201cspecial powers\u201d that were designed to facilitate the war against the FLN. The leader of the government at the time was a Socialist politician, Guy Mollet. The Communist Party, whose strategy was to form a new Popular Front\u2013style alliance with Mollet\u2019s party, voted in favor of these powers.<\/p>\n<p>An editorial in\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>\u00a0condemned the special powers, which it saw as marking a decisive turn away from the possibility of a peaceful settlement in Algeria. It noted that both of the main left parties, the SFIO and the PCF alike, had backed the special powers:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The left, for once unanimous, has voted for the \u201cspecial powers,\u201d powers which are totally useless for negotiation but indispensable for the pursuit and intensification of the war. This vote is scandalous and runs the risk of being irreparable.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"ch-4\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\">\n<h1 class=\"po-cn__subhead po-wp__subhead\">Outlaw Algeria, Outlaw France<\/h1>\n<section id=\"ch-4\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\"><em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>\u00a0became increasingly influential on the small minority of French people who were in total opposition to the war and prepared to actively support the Algerian struggle. Sartre was fully supportive of the hard line taken by the journal. As early as June 1955, at the World Peace Assembly at Helsinki, he declared that the colonial era was at an end and urged the French government to recognize the demands of the people of North Africa. This was going rather further than his Communist friends \u2014 who were calling for \u201cpeace\u201d in Algeria but not independence \u2014 might have wished.<\/p>\n<p>However, it was not Sartre alone who formed the journal\u2019s policy. Francis Jeanson was also a key influence. Jeanson was a young intellectual who greatly admired Sartre \u2014 he had written two books about him \u2014 and became part of the editorial team at\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>. Like Daniel Gu\u00e9rin, Jeanson had seen things for himself. He had spent six months working in Algeria, taking the opportunity to learn about Algerian society. His wife, Colette, visited Algeria three times in 1955, traveling clandestinely, meeting activists in a shantytown, and interviewing an FLN leader.<\/p>\n<aside class=\"sr-at__slot sr-at__slot--left prt-x\"><\/aside>\n<p>In December 1955, Francis and Colette jointly published a book called\u00a0<em>L\u2019Alg\u00e9rie hors la loi<\/em>\u00a0(\u201cOutlaw Algeria\u201d), which was firmly partisan in its support for the FLN. Indeed, some reviewers \u2014 notably Gu\u00e9rin \u2014 had reservations that it was too uncritical of the movement. But the book made some strikingly accurate predictions: it suggested that there would be a war lasting some eight years, that Algeria would obtain its independence (something almost everyone deemed unfeasible), and that the struggle would produce a political crisis leading to Charles de Gaulle\u2019s return to power from retirement.<\/p>\n<p>Jeanson was prepared to put his head on the line. In 1956, he withdrew from his journalistic work and built up a clandestine network of up to a thousand activists who were prepared to work as \u201csuitcase carriers\u201d for the FLN. They performed various jobs for the movement \u2014 in particular, helping transport the money that the FLN raised by taxing Algerian workers and shopkeepers in France. The racist French police force were much less likely to harass and search Europeans than North Africans.<\/p>\n<p>Jeanson proved to be a formidable organizer. He defied the French authorities, often quite impudently \u2014 for example, by holding a press conference in Paris when the police were pursuing him. He remained out of their clutches but was put on trial and sentenced in his absence.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"ch-5\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\">\n<h1 class=\"po-cn__subhead po-wp__subhead\">Forbidden Questions<\/h1>\n<section id=\"ch-5\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\"><em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>\u00a0did not merely take positions on Algeria. It also attempted to provide information on the realities of the war as it developed. Georges Matt\u00e9i had already done military service, but in 1956 the French army recalled Matt\u00e9i as a reservist and sent him to Algeria. He was shocked by what he observed there \u2014 the widespread use of torture, the burning of homes, and the indiscriminate killing of Algerians.<\/p>\n<p>Subsequently, Sartre urged Matt\u00e9i to write about his experiences, and he published an article in\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes\u00a0<\/em>under the title \u201cDays in Kabylia.\u201d It described what he had been obliged to do and presented readers with the realities of torture. The French authorities promptly seized the issue of the journal containing Matt\u00e9i\u2019s article.<\/p>\n<p>The publication\u2019s forthright role in opposing the war brought it into regular conflict with the state. In 1957 the authorities in Algeria seized it four times. One of Sartre\u2019s most dramatic confrontations with those in power came with the case of Henri Alleg, a Communist journalist of European origin who lived in Algeria. French paratroopers arrested Alleg and subjected him to systematic torture. But he survived and managed to smuggle out an account of his experiences, which was published as a book under the title\u00a0<em>La Question<\/em>\u00a0(in French, \u201cquestion\u201d means both question and torture).<\/p>\n<p>The book was briefly a best seller before the French government banned it from sale. Sartre then responded with one of his most incisive articles, \u201cA Victory.\u201d He reminded his readers that barely fifteen years again, the German occupiers and their French collaborators had been torturing French people. Now Algerians were suffering the very same fate at French hands. Sartre went on to argue that it was pointless to be simply against torture as an abstract principle without condemning the political conditions that made it an essential tool of repression for the state. The war could not be fought in a more \u201chumane\u201d fashion, he insisted \u2014 the only possible demand was for complete French withdrawal.<\/p>\n<p>Sartre gave his article \u2014 presumably in order to ensure the most rapid publication \u2014 not to\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>, but rather to the weekly\u00a0<em>L\u2019Express<\/em>. The authorities immediately ordered its seizure. On the morning that it was due to appear, the police went round every newsagent and newsstand, confiscating all the copies. But that was not the end of the affair. The satirical weekly\u00a0<em>Le Canard Encha\u00een\u00e9\u00a0<\/em>published a report of the seizure, accompanied by a reduced photograph of the article with large crosses through it. This could easily be read with the aid of a magnifying glass, and the authorities did not seize it.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"ch-6\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\">\n<h1 class=\"po-cn__subhead po-wp__subhead\">Sartre and Fanon<\/h1>\n<section id=\"ch-6\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\"><em>Les Temps modernes <\/em>also opened its pages to one of the most remarkable spokespersons of the Algerian independence movement,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/jacobinmag.com\/2020\/12\/humanism-frantz-fanon-philosophy-revolutionary-algeria\">Frantz Fanon<\/a>. Fanon, who had been born in the French Caribbean colony of Martinique, had immersed himself in the work of the FLN after first going to Algeria as a psychiatrist. He became part of the team that produced\u00a0<em>El Moudjahid<\/em>, the main FLN publication.<\/p>\n<p>Fanon had long been an admirer of Sartre. He had drawn on Sartre\u2019s book about antisemitism,\u00a0<em>Anti-Semite and Jew<\/em>, for his own early writings on racism. While he was wholly committed to the Algerian national struggle, Fanon was anxious to obtain support from those Europeans who were prepared to offer it unconditionally. He saw Sartre and\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>\u00a0as one means of winning such support. He published an article in the journal dealing with the role of European settlers in Algeria and paying tribute to the small minority of those settlers who had been prepared to give practical aid to the FLN.<\/p>\n<p>In 1961 Fanon arranged to meet Sartre in Rome. Although he was already suffering from the leukemia that would kill him later that year, he was anxious to learn from Sartre. Fanon insisted on talking until the usually indefatigable Frenchman was exhausted.<\/p>\n<p>Just before his death, Fanon completed his last book,\u00a0<em>The Wretched of the Earth<\/em>. Sartre contributed a preface, wholly endorsing Fanon\u2019s critique of French imperialism. Hostile critics often accuse Sartre of glorifying violence. Clearly, they have not taken the trouble to read what he actually wrote. His central theme, developed from Fanon, was that the violence of the oppressed was a necessary response to the violence that imperialism had imposed on its victims.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"ch-7\" class=\"po-cn__section po-wp__section\">\n<h1 class=\"po-cn__subhead po-wp__subhead\">Taking a Stand<\/h1>\n<p>Sartre and <em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>\u00a0played an important part in one of the most dramatic expressions of opposition to the war, the \u201cManifesto of the 121\u201d (always known by that title, though it eventually had over 170 signatories). This document went far beyond simple opposition to the war. It gave full, open support to soldiers who refused to fight and to civilians who offered practical assistance to the FLN.<\/p>\n<p>A range of well-known figures signed the \u201cManifesto of the 121,\u201d including a number of contributors to\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes<\/em>\u00a0\u2014 Sartre himself, Simone de Beauvoir, Gu\u00e9rin, Jeanson, Marcel P\u00e9ju. The publisher and critic Maurice Nadeau, who was a central figure in organizing the manifesto, had also written for the journal. Unsurprisingly, there was a government clampdown in response.\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes\u00a0<\/em>had intended to publish the manifesto but was forced to appear with two blank pages instead.<\/p>\n<aside class=\"sr-at__slot sr-at__slot--left prt-x\"><\/aside>\n<p>By the autumn of 1961, it was clear that de Gaulle\u2019s government would be obliged to concede independence to Algeria. But many of those who controlled the French state were still deeply hostile to Algerian rights. The Paris police imposed a curfew on all Algerians, even though constitutionally they were supposed to be French citizens. The FLN called a peaceful, unarmed demonstration to protest against the curfew. The Parisian police, under the command of former Nazi collaborator Maurice Papon, savagely attacked the demonstrators, killing some two hundred people.<\/p>\n<p>Paulette P\u00e9ju was a radical journalist who had links to the\u00a0<em>Temps modernes\u00a0<\/em>circle \u2014 her husband Marcel was a long-standing member of the editorial team. She rapidly researched and wrote a short book about the events,\u00a0<em>Les ratonnades\u00a0<\/em>(\u201cRacist Attacks\u201d), based on eyewitness reports from the press and other sources, and accounts of police violence by Algerian activists. This was ready for publication by December 1961, but the authorities promptly seized the copies. It did not become available again to readers till 2000, after her death.<\/p>\n<p>In retrospect, it is quite clear that\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes\u00a0<\/em>was much better informed about the situation in Algeria than those who were in charge of government policy. While figures like Fran\u00e7ois Mitterrand might spend the occasional holiday with their political friends in Algeria, the likes of Gu\u00e9rin, Jeanson, and others had seriously investigated Algerian reality. They knew that the cause of Algerian independence was not only morally and politically justified but also destined to achieve success. For France to cling to power merely increased human suffering.<\/p>\n<p>It is a striking illustration of what can be achieved by a relatively small group of journalists who are prepared to report honestly and stand up to authority. Today, the defenders of the existing order like to sneer at the so-called woke \u2014 presumably they prefer the somnolence of ignorance. But\u00a0<em>Les Temps modernes\u00a0<\/em>shows how journalists who tell the truth can end up on the winning side.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Source: jacobinmag.com Published: March 25,2021 Author: IAN BIRCHALL France waged a brutal colonial war in Algeria during the 1950s. But a group&hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":12678,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_lmt_disableupdate":"","_lmt_disable":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[14,11],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-12677","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-historyheritage","category-politics"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.3 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>How Jean-Paul Sartre and Les Temps Modernes Supported Algeria\u2019s Struggle for Freedom - AAH.JZR<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/jazairhope.org\/en\/how-jean-paul-sartre-and-les-temps-modernes-supported-algerias-struggle-for-freedom\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"How Jean-Paul Sartre and Les Temps Modernes Supported Algeria\u2019s Struggle for Freedom - AAH.JZR\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Source: jacobinmag.com Published: March 25,2021 Author: IAN BIRCHALL France waged a brutal colonial war in Algeria during the 1950s. 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